Enhanced antichemobrain activity of amino acid assisted ferulic acid solid dispersion in adult zebrafish (Danio rerio).

Chemotherapy-induced cognitive impairment (CICI), also known as "chemobrain," is a common side effect of breast cancer therapy which causes oxidative stress and generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Ferulic acid (FA), a natural polyphenol, belongs to BCS class II is confirmed to have nootropic, neuroprotective and antioxidant effects. Here, we have developed FA solid dispersion (SD) in order to enhance its therapeutic potential against chemobrain. An amorphous ferulic acid loaded leucin solid dispersion (FA-Leu SD) was prepared by utilizing amino acid through spray-drying technique. The solid-state characterization was carried out via Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM). Additionally, in-vitro release studies and antioxidant assay were also performed along with in-vivo locomotor, biochemical and histopathological analysis. The physical properties showed that FA-Leu SD so formed exhibited spherical, irregular surface hollow cavity of along with broad melting endotherm as observed from FE-SEM and DSC results. The XRD spectra demonstrated absence of sharp and intense peaks in FA-Leu SD which evidenced for complete encapsulation of drug into carrier. Moreover, in-vitro drug release studies over a period of 5 h in PBS (pH 7.4) displayed a significant enhanced release in the first hr (68. 49 ± 5.39%) and in-vitro DPPH assay displayed greater antioxidant potential of FA in FA-Leu SD. Furthermore, the in-vivo behavioral findings of FA-Leu SD (equivalent to 150 mg/kg of free FA) exhibited positive results accompanied by in-vivo biochemical and molecular TNF-α showed a significant difference (p < 0.001) vis-à-vis DOX treated group upon DOX + FA-Leu SD. Additionally, histopathological analysis revealed neuroprotective effects of FA-Leu SD together with declined oxidative stress due to antioxidant potential of FA which was induced by anticancer drug doxorubicin (DOX). Overall, the above findings concluded that spray-dried FA-Leu SD could be useful for the treatment of chemotherapy induced cognitive impairment.

Intermittent fasting along with hydroalcoholic extract of Centella-asiatica ameliorates sub-acute hypoxia-induced ischemic stroke in adult zebrafish.

Reduced blood flow (hypoxia) to the brain is thought to be the main cause of strokes because it deprives the brain of oxygen and nutrients. An increasing amount of evidence indicates that the Centella-Asiatica (HA-CA) hydroalcoholic extract has a variety of pharmacological benefits, such as antioxidant activity, neuroprotection, anti-inflammatory qualities, and angiogenesis promotion. Intermittent fasting (IF) has neurological benefits such as anti-inflammatory properties, neuroprotective effects, and the ability to enhance neuroplasticity. The current study evaluates the combined effect of IF (for 1, 6, and 12 days) along with HA-CA (daily up to 12 days) in adult zebrafish subjected to hypoxia every 5 min for 12 days followed by behavioral (novel tank and open-field tank test), biochemical (SOD, GSH-Px, and LPO), inflammatory (IL-10, IL-1ß, and TNF-α), mitochondrial enzyme activities (Complex-I, II, and IV), signaling molecules (AMPK, MAPK, GSK-3ß, Nrf2), and imaging/staining (H&E, TTC, and TEM) analysis. Results show that sub-acute hypoxia promotes the behavioral alterations, and production of radical species and alters the oxidative stress status in brain tissues of zebrafish, along with mitochondrial dysfunction, neuroinflammation, and alteration of signaling molecules. Nevertheless, HA-CA along with IF significantly ameliorates these defects in adult zebrafish as compared to their effects alone. Further, imaging analysis significantly provided evidence of infarct damage along with neuronal and mitochondrial damage which was significantly ameliorated by IF and HA-CA. The use of IF and HA-CA has been proven to enhance the physiological effects of hypoxia in all dimensions.

Medicinal herbal remedies in neurodegenerative diseases: an update on antioxidant potential.

It has been widely documented that medicinal herbal remedies are effective, have fewer side effects than conventional medicine, and have a synergistic effect on health collaborations in the fight against complicated diseases. Traditional treatments for neurological problems in ancient times sometimes involved the use of herbal remedies and conventional methods from East Asian countries including India, Japan, China, and Korea. We collected and reviewed studies on plant-derived neuroprotective drugs and tested them in neurotoxic models. Basic research, preclinical and clinical transgene research can benefit from in silico, in vitro, and in vivo investigations. Research, summaries of the extracts, fractions, and herbal ingredients were compiled from popular scientific databases, which were then examined according to origin and bioactivity. Given the complex and varied causes of neurodegeneration, it may be beneficial to focus on multiple mechanisms of action and a neuroprotection approach. This approach aims to prevent cell death and restore function to damaged neurons, offering promising strategies for preventing and treating neurodegenerative diseases. Neurodegenerative illnesses can potentially be treated with natural compounds that have been identified as neuroprotective agents. To gain deeper insights into the neuropharmacological mechanisms underlying the neuroprotective and therapeutic properties of naturally occurring antioxidant phytochemical compounds in diverse neurodegenerative diseases, this study aims to comprehensively review such compounds, focusing on their modulation of apoptotic markers such as caspase, Bax, Bcl-2, and proinflammatory markers. In addition, we delve into a range of efficacies of antioxidant phytochemical compounds as neuroprotective agents in animal models. They reduce the oxidative stress of the brain and have been shown to have anti-apoptotic effects. Many researches have demonstrated that plant extracts or bioactive compounds can fight neurodegenerative disorders. Herbal medications may offer neurodegenerative disease patients' new treatments. This may be a cheaper and more culturally appropriate alternative to standard drugs for millions of people with age-related NDDs.

Phyto-pharmacological Potential of Aegle marmelos (L.) for Neurological Disorders: Progress and Prospects.

BACKGROUND: Aegle marmelos, an Indian plant, has been extensively utilized by the people of the Indian subcontinent over about 5000 years. The leaves, bark, roots, and fruits, including seeds, are widely used to cure a variety of diseases in the Indian traditional system of medicine, Ayurveda, along with numerous folk medicines. By revealing the existence of significant bioactive chemicals, modern research has effectively substantiated the therapeutic effects of bael. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to review the literature regarding A. marmelos geographical distribution, morphology, therapeutic benefits, and phytochemicals found in the bael leaves, fruits, and other parts of the plant that offer a wide range of pharmacological applications in neurological disorders. METHODOLOGY: A thorough literature search was conducted using five computerized databases, such as PubMed, Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, Elsevier, and Wiley Online Library (WOL), by using standard keywords "A. marmelos," "Geographical distribution," "Morphological description," "Ethnobotanical Uses," "Phytoconstituents" and "Neuroprotective activities" for review papers published between 1975 and 2023. A small number of earlier review articles focused on phyto-pharmacological potential of Aegle marmelos (L.) for neurological disorders. RESULTS: According to some research, Aegle marmelos extracts potentially have neuroprotective benefits. This is due to its capacity to alter cellular mechanisms that cause neuronal damage. CONCLUSION: Neurodegenerative illnesses usually induce permanent neuronal network loss overall the brain along with the spinal cord (CNS), resulting in chronic functional impairments. The review summarizes the multiple aspects and processes of A. marmelos extract and its components in several models of neurodegenerative diseases such as anxiety, epilepsy, depression, Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, and others. MDA, nitrite, TNF-, and IL-6 levels were dramatically elevated, whereas glutathione levels were significantly lowered in the hippocampus of STZ-treated rats. Furthermore, STZ-treated rats showed a substantial drop in catalase activity and an increase in AChE activity, indicating cholinergic hypofunction and neuronal injury. The neuroprotective ability of A. marmelos against STZ-induced oxidative stress and cognitive loss in rats suggests that it has therapeutic relevance in Alzheimer's disease (AD).

Exploring the genotype-environment interaction of bread wheat in ambient and high-temperature planting conditions: a rigorous investigation.

The current study is carried out to find out the stable wheat genotype in ambient and high temperature planting conditions. The objective was to estimate the genotype x environment interactions through various univariates and multivariate techniques. Twenty wheat genotypes were evaluated at Jabalpur, Narmadapuram, and Sagar districts of Madhya Pradesh, India, across cropping years 2019-20 and 2021-21, considering both timely and late planting conditions. The univariate and multivariate stability analysis were performed based on per-plant grain yield and grain filling rate. Our result revealed that environment, genotype, and GEI effects were significant (P < 0.001) across all the environments. The wheat genotypes JW3288, L8, and L13 have been discerned as top performers, exhibiting remarkable stability in grain yield per plant. Similarly, for grain filling rate, genotypes L11 and L13 have emerged as superior and consistently stable performers. Notably, the AMMI and GGE models demonstrated superior effectiveness and accuracy compared to the linear regression model. In conclusion, based on thorough univariate and multivariate stability analyses, L13 emerges as the most stable genotype across all environments under both planting conditions. Consequently, L13 holds promise for inclusion in future breeding programs. It's noteworthy that Jabalpur stands out as the most discriminating and representative environment among all the conditions assessed.

COVID-19 Virus Structural Details: Optical and Electrochemical Detection.

The increasing viral species have ruined people's health and the world's economy. Therefore, it is urgent to design bio-responsive materials to provide a vast platform for detecting a different family's passive or active virus. One can design a reactive functional unit for that moiety based on the particular bio-active moieties in viruses. Nanomaterials as optical and electrochemical biosensors have enabled better tools and devices to develop rapid virus detection. Various material science platforms are available for real-time monitoring and detecting COVID-19 and other viral loads. In this review, we discuss the recent advances of nanomaterials in developing the tools for optical and electrochemical sensing COVID-19. In addition, nanomaterials used to detect other human viruses have been studied, providing insights for developing COVID-19 sensing materials. The basic strategies for nanomaterials develop as virus sensors, fabrications, and detection performances are studied. Moreover, the new methods to enhance the virus sensing properties are discussed to provide a gateway for virus detection in variant forms. The study will provide systematic information and working of virus sensors. In addition, the deep discussion of structural properties and signal changes will offer a new gate for researchers to develop new virus sensors for clinical applications.

Modeling Huntington's disease: An insight on in-vitro and in-vivo models.

Huntington's disease is a neurodegenerative illness that causes neuronal death most extensively within the basal ganglia. There is a broad class of neurologic disorders associated with the expansion of polyglutamine (polyQ) repeats in numerous proteins. Several other molecular mechanisms have also been implicated in HD pathology, including brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), mitochondrial dysfunction, and altered synaptic plasticity in central spiny neurons. HD pathogenesis and the effectiveness of therapy approaches have been better understood through the use of animal models. The pathological manifestations of the disease were reproduced by early models of glutamate analog toxicity and mitochondrial respiration inhibition. Because the treatments available for HD are quite limited, it is important to have a definite preclinical model that mimics all the aspects of the disease. It can be used to study mechanisms and validate candidate therapies. Although there hasn't been much success in translating animal research into clinical practice, each model has something special to offer in the quest for a deeper comprehension of HD's neurobehavioral foundations. This review provides insight into various in-vitro-and in-vivo models of HD which may be useful in the screening of newer therapeutics for this incapacitating disorder.

Recent Advances in Delivery of Peptide and Protein Therapeutics to the Brain.

The classes of neuropharmaceuticals known as proteins and peptides serve as diagnostic tools and are involved in specific communication in the peripheral and central nervous systems. However, due to tight junctions resembling epithelial cells found in the blood-brain barrier (BBB) in vivo, they are typically excluded from transport from the blood to the brain. The drugs having molecular weight of less than 400 Dalton are able to cross the BBB via lipid-mediated free diffusion. However, large molecule therapeutics are devoid of these characteristics. As an alternative, these substances may be carried via chimeric peptide drug delivery systems, and assist in transcytosis through BBB with the aid of linker strategies. With their recent developments, several forms of nanoparticles, including poly (ethylene glycol)-poly(ε-caprolactone) copolymers, nanogels, liposomes, nanostructured lipid carriers, poly (D, L-lactide-co-glycolide) nanoparticles, chitosan, and solid lipid nanoparticles, have also been considered for their therapeutic applications. Moreover, the necessity for physiologic optimization of current drug delivery methods and their carriers to deliver therapeutic doses of medication into the brain for the treatment of various neurologic illnesses has also been emphasized. Therapeutic use of proteins and peptides has no neuroprotective impact in the absence of all these methods. Each tactic, however, has unique drawbacks and considerations. In this review, we discuss different drug delivery methods for therapeutic distribution of pharmaceuticals, primarily neuroproteins and neuropeptides, through endothelial capillaries via blood-brain barrier. Finally, we have also discussed the challenges and future perspective of protein and peptide therapeutics delivery to the brain. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Very few reports on the delivery of therapeutic protein and peptide nanoformulations are available in the literature. Herein, we attempted to discuss these nanoformulations of protein and peptide therapeutics used to treat brain diseases.

Role of Autophagy and Mitophagy in Neurodegenerative Disorders.

Autophagy is a self-destructive cellular process that removes essential metabolites and waste from inside the cell to maintain cellular health. Mitophagy is the process by which autophagy causes disruption inside mitochondria and the total removal of damaged or stressed mitochondria, hence enhancing cellular health. The mitochondria are the powerhouses of the cell, performing essential functions such as ATP (adenosine triphosphate) generation, metabolism, Ca2+ buffering, and signal transduction. Many different mechanisms, including endosomal and autophagosomal transport, bring these substrates to lysosomes for processing. Autophagy and endocytic processes each have distinct compartments, and they interact dynamically with one another to complete digestion. Since mitophagy is essential for maintaining cellular health and using genetics, cell biology, and proteomics techniques, it is necessary to understand its beginning, particularly in ubiquitin and receptor-dependent signalling in injured mitochondria. Despite their similar symptoms and emerging genetic foundations, Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), Huntington's disease (HD), and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) have all been linked to abnormalities in autophagy and endolysosomal pathways associated with neuronal dysfunction. Mitophagy is responsible for normal mitochondrial turnover and, under certain physiological or pathological situations, may drive the elimination of faulty mitochondria. Due to their high energy requirements and post-mitotic origin, neurons are especially susceptible to autophagic and mitochondrial malfunction. This article focused on the importance of autophagy and mitophagy in neurodegenerative illnesses and how they might be used to create novel therapeutic approaches for treating a wide range of neurological disorders.

Recent advances in stimuli-responsive tailored nanogels for cancer therapy; from bench to personalized treatment.

To improve the quality of health in a personalized manner, better control over pharmacologically relevant cargo formulation, organ-specific targeted delivery, and on-demand release of therapeutic agents is crucial. Significant work has been put into designing and developing revolutionary nanotherapeutics approaches for the effective monitoring and personalized treatment of disease. Nanogel (NG) has attracted significant interest because of its tremendous potential in cancer therapy and its environmental stimuli responsiveness. NG is considered a next-generation delivery technology due to its benefits like as size tunability, high loading, stimuli responsiveness, prolonged drug release via in situ gelling mechanisms, stability, and its potential to provide personalized therapy from the investigation of human genes and the genes in various types of cancers and its association with a selective anticancer drug. Stimuli-responsive NGs can be used as smart nanomedicines to detect and treat cancer and can be tuned as personalized medicine as well. This comprehensive review article's major objectives include the challenges of NGs' clinical translation for cancer treatment as well as its early preclinical successes and prospects.

Understanding zebrafish sleep and wakefulness physiology as an experimental model for biomedical research.

Sleep is a globally observable fact, or period of reversible distracted rest, that can be distinguished from arousal by various behavioral criteria. Although the function of sleep is an evolutionarily conserved behavior, its mechanism is not yet clear. The zebrafish (Danio rerio) has become a valuable model for neurobehavioral studies such as studying learning, memory, anxiety, and depression. It is characterized by a sleep-like state and circadian rhythm, making it comparable to mammals. Zebrafish are a good model for behavioral studies because they share genetic similarities with humans. A number of neurotransmitters are involved in sleep and wakefulness. There is a binding between melatonin and the hypocretin system present in zebrafish. The full understanding of sleep and wakefulness physiology in zebrafish is still unclear among researchers. Therefore, to make a clear understanding of the sleep/wake cycle in zebrafish, this article covers the mechanism involved behind it, and the role of the neuromodulator system followed by the mechanism of the HPA axis.

Therapeutic management of ischemic stroke.

Stroke is the third leading cause of years lost due to disability and the second-largest cause of mortality worldwide. Most occurrences of stroke are brought on by the sudden occlusion of an artery (ischemic stroke), but sometimes they are brought on by bleeding into brain tissue after a blood vessel has ruptured (hemorrhagic stroke). Alteplase is the only therapy the American Food and Drug Administration has approved for ischemic stroke under the thrombolysis category. Current views as well as relevant clinical research on the diagnosis, assessment, and management of stroke are reviewed to suggest appropriate treatment strategies. We searched PubMed and Google Scholar for the available therapeutic regimes in the past, present, and future. With the advent of endovascular therapy in 2015 and intravenous thrombolysis in 1995, the therapeutic options for ischemic stroke have expanded significantly. A novel approach such as vagus nerve stimulation could be life-changing for many stroke patients. Therapeutic hypothermia, the process of cooling the body or brain to preserve organ integrity, is one of the most potent neuroprotectants in both clinical and preclinical contexts. The rapid intervention has been linked to more favorable clinical results. This study focuses on the pathogenesis of stroke, as well as its recent advancements, future prospects, and potential therapeutic targets in stroke therapy.

Enhancing post-harvest quality of sapota using ultraviolet-C irradiation: A study on efficacy and effects.

Ultraviolet-C (UV-C) radiation has been identified as a promising method for enhancing the shelf life of fruits and vegetables by reducing microbial count and boosting their defence mechanisms. In this study, the impact of UV-C radiation on the physical, biochemical, and microbial properties of sapota fruits was investigated by subjecting them to different doses (2.5, 5, 7.5, and 10 kJ m-2; 12 ± 1°C; 85-90% relative humidity) to enhance their shelf life. The results revealed that higher doses of UV-C radiation resulted in significantly lower weight loss and higher firmness compared to untreated samples and samples treated with lower doses. Furthermore, UV-C-treated fruits displayed a delayed increase in total soluble solids, total sugar, and reduced sugar content compared to the untreated fruit during storage. The UV-C-treated fruits also exhibited a delayed decline in ascorbic acid and titratable acidity during storage. The treated fruits exhibited significantly higher phenolic content than the untreated fruits. Additionally, significantly lower decay and microbial count were observed in fruits treated with higher doses than in those treated with lower doses. The samples treated with a dose of 7.5 and 10 kJ m-2 had a shelf life of 25 days compared to 14 days for the control fruits.

Recent Updates in Inhalable Drug Delivery System against Various Pulmonary Diseases: Challenges and Future Perspectives.

In the current scenario, pulmonary disease has become a prime burden for morbidity and mortality alongside tremendous social and economic crises throughout the world. Numerous conventional drug delivery system and treatment approach targeting the respiratory region has been driven out. However, effective and accurate recovery has not been achieved yet. In this regard, nanotechnological-based inhalable drug delivery strategy including polymeric, lipidic, or metallic-based respirable microparticles plays an indispensable role in circumventing numerous challenges faced during traditional treatment. Excellent aerodynamic performance leads to enhanced lung targetability, reduced dosing frequency and hence systemic toxicities, as well as improved pharmaceutical attributes, and therefore pharmacokinetic profiles are interminable factors associated with nanotechnologicalbased inhalable delivery. In this review, we comprehensively explored recent advancements in nanotechnologically engineered inhalable formulations targeting each of the mentioned pulmonary diseases. Moreover, we systematically discussed possible respiratory or systemic toxicities about the indeterminate and undefined physicochemical characteristics of inhaled particles.

Crosstalk between phytochemicals and inflammatory signaling pathways.

Novel bioactive constituents from natural sources are actively being investigated. The phytochemicals in these phenolic compounds are believed to have a variety of beneficial effects on human health. Several phenolic compounds have been found in plants. The antioxidant potential of phenols has been discussed in numerous studies along with their anti-inflammatory effects on pro-inflammatory cytokine, inducible cyclooxygenase-2, and nitric oxide synthase. Through current study, an attempt is made to outline and highlight a wide variety of inflammation-associated signaling pathways that have been modified by several natural compounds. These signaling pathways include nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-кB), activator protein (AP)-1, protein tyrosine kinases (PTKs), mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) transcription factors, tyrosine phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/AKT, and the ubiquitin-proteasome system. In light of the influence of natural substances on signaling pathways, their impact on the production of inflammatory mediator is highlighted in this review.

Progression of pre-rheumatoid arthritis to clinical disease of joints: Potential role of mesenchymal stem cells.

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) related autoimmunity is developed at mucosal sites due to the interplay between genetic risk factors and environmental triggers. The pre-RA phase that leads to anti-citrullinated protein antibodies, rheumatoid factor, and other autoantibodies spread in the systemic circulation may not affect articular tissue for years until a mysterious second hit triggers the localization of RA-related autoimmunity in joints. Several players in the joint microenvironment mediate the synovial innate and adaptive immunological processes, eventually leading to clinical synovitis. There still exists a gap in the early phase of RA pathogenesis, i.e., the progression of diseases from the systemic circulation to joints. The lack of better understanding of these events results in the inability to answer questions about why only after a certain point of time the disease appears in joints and why in some cases, it simply remains latent and doesn't affect joints at all. In the current review, we focused on the immunomodulatory and regenerative role of mesenchymal stem cells and associated exosomes in RA pathology. We also highlighted the age-related dysregulations in activities of mesenchymal stem cells and how that might trigger homing of systemic autoimmunity to joints.

Piperine loaded metal organic frameworks reverse doxorubicin induced chemobrain in adult zebrafish.

The study's primary goal was to enhance medicinal potential of piperine (PIP)-loaded zeolitic imidazolate frameworks-8 (PIP@ZIF-8) against doxorubicin (DOX)-induced cognitive impairments in zebrafish. Herein, PIP@ZIF-8 was synthesized via easy, economical and reproducible ultrasonication method followed by spray drying technology. ZIF-8's structural integrity has been confirmed by PXRD, and even after PIP was encapsulated, the structure of ZIF-8 remained unchanged. Pure ZIF-8 and PIP@ZIF-8 were subjected to TEM analysis, which revealed hexagonal morphology with a nanosize range. FTIR and UV-Visible spectroscopy studies confirmed the drug loading of ZIF-8. Studies on in vitro release revealed 71.48 ± 7.21% and 34.56 ± 5.35% PIP release from PIP@ZIF-8 and unformulated PIP, respectively in pH 7.4. The highest antioxidant scavenging results were obtained with vitamin C (73.77 ± 6.7%) at an intensity of 200 µg/ml, though it was 65.09 ± 2.5% and 57.99 ± 3.1% for PIP@ZIF-8 and PIP, respectively. In vivo studies on zebrafish showed that DOX administration remarkably impaired cognitive activity in T-Maze, and downregulated spatial memory and locomotor activity in the open field test. In addition, DOX administration caused a downregulation in GSH and SOD levels and increase in LPO, AChE and TNF-α levels compared to the vehicle group along with changes in brain histopathology. Further, PIP@ZIF-8 reversed the DOX-induced cognitive impairments by its antioxidant and neuroprotective properties. It can be concluded that PIP@ZIF-8 has a promising therapeutic potential against the chemotherapy-induced cognitive impairments in zebrafish.

The Role of Mitophagy in Various Neurological Diseases as a Therapeutic Approach.

Mitochondria are critical to multiple cellular processes, from the production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), maintenance of calcium homeostasis, synthesis of key metabolites, and production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) to maintain necrosis, apoptosis, and autophagy. Therefore, proper clearance and regulation are essential to maintain various physiological processes carried out by the cellular mechanism, including mitophagy and autophagy, by breaking down the damaged intracellular connections under the influence of various genes and proteins and protecting against various neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson disease (PD), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), Alzheimer disease (AD), and Huntington disease (HD). In this review, we will discuss the role of autophagy, selective macroautophagy, or mitophagy, and its role in neurodegenerative diseases along with normal physiology. In addition, this review will provide a better understanding of the pathways involved in neuron autophagy and mitophagy and how mutations affect these pathways in the various genes involved in neurodegenerative diseases. Various new findings indicate that the pathways that remove dysfunctional mitochondria are impaired in these diseases, leading to the deposition of damaged mitochondria. Apart from that, we have also discussed the therapeutic strategies targeting autophagy and mitophagy in neurodegenerative diseases. The mitophagy cycle results in the degradation of damaged mitochondria and the biogenesis of new healthy mitochondria, also highlighting different stages at which a particular neurodegenerative disease could occur.

Modulating autophagy and mitophagy as a promising therapeutic approach in neurodegenerative disorders.

The high prevalence of neurodegenerative diseases has become a major public health challenge and is associated with a tremendous burden on individuals, society and federal governments worldwide. Protein misfolding and aggregation are the major pathological hallmarks of several neurodegenerative disorders. The cells have evolved several regulatory mechanisms to deal with aberrant protein folding, namely the classical ubiquitin pathway, where ubiquitination of protein aggregates marks their degradation via lysosome and the novel autophagy or mitophagy pathways. Autophagy is a catabolic process in eukaryotic cells that allows the lysosome to recycle the cell's own contents, such as organelles and proteins, known as autophagic cargo. Their most significant role is to keep cells alive in distressed situations. Mitophagy is also crucial for reducing abnormal protein aggregation and increasing organelle clearance and partly accounts for maintaining cellular homeostasis. Furthermore, substantial data indicate that any disruption in these homeostatic mechanisms leads to the emergence of several age-associated metabolic and neurodegenerative diseases. So, targeting autophagy and mitophagy might be a potential therapeutic strategy for a variety of health conditions.

Metformin Decreases Serum Thyroglobulin Concentration in Nonmedullary Thyroid Carcinoma.

Context: The conventional treatment of nonmedullary thyroid carcinoma (NMTC) includes surgical resection, thyrotropin (TSH) suppression, and 131-iodine. Some patients develop persistent/recurrent metastatic disease requiring expensive alternative therapies, such as external radiation and multikinase inhibitors, which may have clinically significant side effects. Recent in vitro studies, in vivo studies in animals, and association studies in humans suggest that metformin, an inexpensive medication with a modest side effect profile, may help prevent or treat NMTC. No interventional trials analyzing the effect of metformin have been performed in humans. Objective: We hypothesize that metformin administration will decrease serum thyroglobulin concentration (Tg), a surrogate marker for NMTC burden. Methods: This retrospective institutional review board-approved study included 10 patients with persistent/recurrent NMTC who had exhausted conventional therapies including total thyroidectomy and 131-iodine. Five had detectable disease on computed tomography imaging. All had biochemical evidence of NMTC with Tg > 2.0 ng/mL with nondetectable serum thyroglobulin antibody concentrations. Five elected to have metformin treatment at doses varying from 500 to 2000 mg/day for 2 to 5 months. The remaining 5 served as untreated controls. Statistical significance was determined by the Mann-Whitney test. Results: Tg decreased (mean decrease = 21.7 ± 8.4%) in all 5 patients receiving metformin and increased (mean increase = 16.6 ± 12.1%) in all 5 controls (P < .01). TSH did not change significantly in either group. Conclusion: In summary, metformin caused a TSH-independent Tg decrease in patients with persistent/recurrent NMTC. More extensive studies are required to determine if metformin slows NMTC progression.